Nezvishoma: ehupfumi, mamiriro, arambe achirema uye mienzaniso

Zvinhu zvakasimba ndeavo vanogona kugadzira miviri uye vane ivhu. Kubva kunwa mvura uye gasi vanosiyana nenzira yavo. Solids inochengetedza chimiro chemuviri nekuda kwekuti zvikamu zvavo hazvikwanisi kufamba zvakasununguka. Izvo zvakasiyana muhuwandu hwavo, plastiki, magetsi magetsi uye mavara. Vanewo zvimwe zvinhu. Semuenzaniso, zvizhinji zvezvinhu izvi zvinonyunguduka panguva yekupisa, kuwana mvura yakawanda yehurumende. Dzimwe dzazvo, kana dzichitsva, pakarepo inoshanduka kuva mafuta (sublime). Asi panewo izvo zvinoputika mune zvimwe zvinhu.

Mhando dzezvisikwa

Zvose zvakasvibiswa zvakakamurwa kuva mapoka maviri.

1. Amorphous, umo munhu mumwechete zvikamu zvinowanikwa chaotically. Mune mamwe mazwi: havakwanisi (zvakajeka) sarudzo. Izvi zvakakosha zvinokwanisa kunyunguduka mune imwe yakashambidzwa yakasarudzwa. Izvo zvinowanzoitika kwavari zvinogona kunzi girasi uye resin.
2. Crystalline, iyo, iyo yakazoita, yakakamurwa kuva 4 marudzi: atomic, molecular, ionic, metallic. Mavari, zvikamu zvinowanikwa chete maererano nechimwe chigadziro, kureva node dze crystal lattice. Iroometri yayo mune zvakasiyana-siyana zvinogona kusiyana zvikuru.

Zvinhu zvakasimba zvekristalline zvinowanzoenderana neamorphous nenhamba.

Aina dze crystalline solids

Munzvimbo yakasimba, inenge zvinhu zvose zvine chestalline structure. Izvo zvakasiyana mukugadzirwa kwavo. Crystalline lattices munharaunda dzavo dzine zvinyorwa zvakasiyana uye makemikari. Izvo zvinoenderana navo kuti vane mazita avo. Rudzi rumwe norumwe rune maitiro aro:

• Muatomuki crystal lattice, zvikamu zvakasimba zvakasungwa nechisungo chekuvharana. Rinosiyaniswa nesimba rayo. Nokuda kweizvi, zvinhu zvakadaro zvinoratidzwa nenzvimbo yakanyunguduka yepamusoro uye chinotisa. Quartz nedhaimondi ndeyetsika iyi.
• Mune molecular crystal lattice, chisungo pakati pezvikamu chinonyanya kuzivikanwa nokuda kweutera hwayo. Zvimwe zvinhu zvakadai zvinoratidzirwa nekunyorova kwebiya nekunyunguduka. Zvinopesana mukusava nehanya nekuda kwekuti vane unhu hwei. Miviri yakadaro yakasimba inosanganisira ice, shuga. Maitiro emamolekoro mune zvakasimba zvemufananidzo uyu anosiyaniswa nebasa ravo.
• Mune ionic crystal lattice , nodes dzinoshandiswa pamwe nemashizha akaenzana anotengesa zvakanaka uye zvisina kunaka. Inobatwa nekutengesa magetsi. Rudzi urwu rwetayiti ruripo mune alkalis, salt, basic oxides. Zvinhu zvakawanda zvechimiro ichi zvinongogadziriswa mumvura. Nokuda kwehukama hwakasimba pakati peion, ivo vanopikisa. Inenge dzose dzazvo hazvina kunaka, sezvo dzinoratidzirwa kwete kusagadzikana. Ion-lattice zvinhu haikwanise kutungamirira mhepo yegesi, sezvo isina michina yemasikironi. Chimiro chemuenzaniso weyoni yakasimba ndiyo sodium chloride. Girasi yakadaro yekristini inoita kuti iome. Izvi zvinokonzerwa nekuti chero ipi zvayo yekuchinja kwayo inogona kutungamirira kune kuonekwa kweioni inopisa simba.
• Mucheka chetristal lattice, ions chete yemakemikari inowanikwa mune nodes, iyo inofungidzirwa zvakanaka. Pakati pavo kune mahwendefa asingasunungurwi, anoshandiswa nemhepo inopisa uye magetsi inopera zvakakwana. Ndiko kusaka chero zvigadzirwa zvakasiyana pane zvakadai sekuitisa.

Zvose zvinowanzoenderana nehutano

Mitezo yakasimba nezvinhu zvinenge zvakangofanana. Aya mazwi ndeimwe emakwikwi mana ehurumende. Miviri yakasimba ine maitiro akaoma uye unhu hwekufamba kwemaatomu. Uye iyo yekupedzisira inoita kuchinja kwechidiki pedyo nemamiriro ekufananidza. Chikamu chesayenzi chinobata nekudzidza kwezvakagadzirwa uye mukati mechimiro chinonzi hukama hwema physics. Kune mamwe mazano anokosha ehutano anobata nezvinhu zvakadaro. Iko kuchinja kwehumwe pasi pekunze kwemaitiro nekufambisa kunonzi ma mechanics emuviri wakaremara.

Pamusana pezvinhu zvakasiyana zvezvinhu zvakasimba, vakawana shanduro mune zvigadzirwa zvakasiyana-siyana zvemagetsi zvakasikwa nemunhu. Kazhinji kacho, hwaro hwekushandisa kwavo runoisa zvinhu zvakadai sokuoma, kuwanda, kuwanda, kusununguka, ductility, brittleness. Sayenzi yemazuva ano inobvumira kushandiswa kwehumwe hutsika hwehusimba, hunogona kuonekwa mu laboratori chete.

Chii chinonzi makristasi?

Mvere dzakave miviri yakasimba ne-particles yakarongwa mune imwe nzira. Chimwe nechimwe chemakemikari ine chimiro chayo. Maatomu ayo anoshandisa katatu-dimensional-periodic laying, inonzi crystal lattice. Solids ane kusiyana kwakasiyana-siyana kwechimiro. Iko krisstalline mamiriro ezvinhu akaoma inonzi yakasimba, sezvo ine zvishoma zvingaita simba.

Iyo yakawanda yezvinhu zvakasimba (yakasikwa) inosanganisira nhamba yakawanda yezvinyorwa zvakasiyana-siyana zvinokwana (crystallites). Zvinhu zvakadaro zvinonzi ipolycrystalline. Izvi zvinosanganisira zvipfeko zvechirairo uye zvigadzirwa, pamwe chete nematombo akawanda. Makristara asina kukwana anonzi asingasviki chaiwo kana maitiro emakristasi.

Kazhinji kazhinji, zvakasikwa zvakadaro zvinoumbwa kubva kune imwe nzvimbo yeropa rinomiririrwa nehutuka kana sarudzo. Dzimwe nguva dzinowanikwa kubva kune gaseous state. Izvi zvinonzi crystallization. Kutenda kubudirira kwezvesayenzi uye zvekambani, nzira yekukura (synthesizing) zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana yave yehuwandu hwemabhizimisi. Kazhinji makristasi ane chimiro chechisikigo muchimiro chema polyhedra nguva dzose. Masimba avo akasiyana zvikuru. Saka, zvinyorwa zvekartz (rock crystal) zvinogona kuenzana kusvika mazana emakirogiramu, uye madhaimondi - kusvika pamagiramu akawanda.

Muchidimbu chemasopi, maatomu ari mukuramba achinyanya kutarisana nepakati pezvikwangwani zvinowanikwa. Vanochengetedza imwe urongwa hwfupi-pfupi, asi hapana urongwa hwekureba kwenguva refu. Izvi zvinokonzerwa nekuti ma molecules avo ari kure nechokuenzaniswa nehukuru hwavo. Muenzaniso wakakurumbira muupenyu hwedu hwakasimba zvakadaro iyo girazi. Zvinhu zveAmorphous zvinowanzoonekwa semvura inenge yakasimba kwazvo. Nguva yenguva yavo yekugadzirisa dzimwe nguva yakakura kwazvo zvokuti haina kuonekwa zvachose.

Izvo zviri pamusoro apa zvezvinhu izvi zvinoita kuti zvive zvakasiyana. Masango emamorphous anoonekwa seasina kugadzikana, sezvo anogona kupedzisira apinda muchechi yekristalline.

Mamolekoro uye maatomu ayo anoumba akasimba ane zvakawanda zvakakura. Vanonyatsochengetedza hukama hwavo pamwe chete nedzimwe zvikamu uye vanobatanidzwa pamwe nekubatana kwema intermolecular. Nharaunda iri pakati pemakorokisi emhando yakasimba mumitemo yakasiyana inonzi inonzi parameter ye crystal lattice. Chimiro chechinhu chacho nehutano hwehutano hunoona zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana, zvakadai semagetsi e-zone, cleavage uye optics. Kana ichiiswa kune chimwe chinhu chakasimba chine simba rakakwana zvakakwana, unhu uhwu hunogona kunge hwakaputsika. Muchiitiko ichi, yakasimba inogona kushandiswa kushanduka zvachose.

Atomu dzezvinyorwa zvinoshevedzera zvinotyisa, izvo zvinokonzerwa nehupenyu hwavo hwekupisa. Sezvo zvisingakoshi, zvinogona kuonekwa chete pasi peb laboratory. Iko kemikoromutemu yechinhu chakasimba chinokanganisa zvikuru zvayo.

Kudzidza kwezvinyorwa

Zviratidzo, zvivako zvezvinhu izvi, hutano hwavo uye zvinyorwa zvinyorwa zvinodzidzwa muzvikamu zvakasiyana-siyana zvefizikiki yakasimba yenyika.

Nokuti chidzidzo chakashandiswa: redio spectroscopy, kushandiswa kwemasimba kushandisa X-ray uye dzimwe nzira. Saka tinodzidza ma mechanical, muviri uye kupisa kwezvinhu zvakasimba. Kuoma, kushorwa nemitoro, simba rekupedzisira, shanduko yekugadzirisa, kuongorora masayenzi. Iro inonyanya kuratirana nefizikiki yezvakasimba. Ikoko kune imwe soro rinokosha remazuva ano. Kuongorora kwekupo nekugadzirwa kwezvinhu zvitsva kunoitwa nehutano hwemakemikari.

Zvichemo zvezvisikwa

Chimiro chekufamba kwemashure eatomu yakasimba inogadzirisa zvakawanda zvayo, semuenzaniso, magetsi. Pane makirasi mashanu emitumbi yakadaro. Iyo yakasimbiswa zvichienderana nerudzi rwechisungo cheatomu:

• Ionic, iyo inonyanya kukosha iyo ndiyo simba rekukwevera magetsi. Zviratidzo zvacho: kufungisisa uye kupindira kwechiedza munharaunda ye infrared. Pachando chakadzika, hutoni ionic inoratidzwa nechepasi magetsi conductivity. Muenzaniso wezvinhu zvakadaro ndiyo sodium munyu we hydrochloric acid (NaCl).
• Covalent, yakaitwa nekuda kwekombiyuta yemasikironi, ayo ari maviri maatomu. Izvi zvakabatanidzwa mu: vasina (nyore), kaviri uye katatu. Aya mazita anoratidza kuvapo kwe electron pairs (1, 2, 3). Bato uye katatu zvisungo zvinonzi vazhinji. Pane imwezve kupatsana kweboka iri. Nokudaro, zvichienderana nekupararira kwehuwandu hwemagetsi, chikwata che polar uye chechipo chisina kurega. Yokutanga inoumbwa nemaatomu akasiyana, uye wechipiri yakafanana. Mamiriro ezvinhu akadai akadaro, mienzaniso yaro diamond (C) uye silicon (Si), inosiyaniswa nehuwandu hwayo. Makristani akaoma kupfuura ose ndeaanobatanidzwa.
• Mishonga, yakagadzirwa nokubatanidza magetsi emagetsi eatomu. Somugumisiro, pane magetsi ehurumende yakawanda, iyo inoshandiswa pasi pesimba remagetsi. Sangano resimbi rinoumbwa apo maatomu akabatanidzwa akakura. Ndivo avo vanogona kupa michemoni. Kune dzakawanda zvesimbi uye zvakaoma zvinoumba, hukama hwakasimba hwezvinhu hunoumbwa nechisungo ichi. Mienzaniso: sodium, barium, aluminium, mhangura, ndarama. Pakati pemakemikari asingatendi, zvinotevera zvinogona kutaurwa: AlCr ₂ , Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn ₈ . Zvinhu zvakasimbiswa nesimbi (zvishandiso) zvakasiyana-siyana mumamiriro ezvinhu. Zvinogona kuva mvura (Hg), zvinyoro (Na, K), zvakaoma zvikuru (W, Nb).
• Molecular, inobva mumakristasi, ayo anoumbwa nemamolekemu ega ega nyaya. Iyo inoratidzirwa nemapapakati pakati pemamolekoro ne zero electron. Masimba anounganidza maatomu mumakristani akadaro anokosha. Muchiitiko ichi, mamolekoro inokwezva kune mumwe nemumwe chete nekunetseka kwekutsvaga mukati. Ndicho chikonzero kubatana pakati pazvo kunoparara nyore kana kupisa. Kubatana pakati peatomu kwakanyanya kuoma. The molecular bond inoparadzaniswa kuva maitiro, kupararira uye kuiswa. Chimiro chezvinhu zvakadai isimba yakasimba methane.
• Hydrogen, iyo inowanikwa pakati peiyo maitiro eatorike ematokisiki kana chikamu chayo uye inoparadzanisa zvinyorwa zvishoma pane imwe molecule kana imwe chikamu. Izvi zvinosanganisira kuvhara.

Properties ye solids

Chii chatinoziva nhasi? Masayendisiti ave nenguva yakaongorora dzimba dzehukama hwakasimba hwezvinhu. Apo kutonhora kunobatwa, kutonhora kunoshanduka zvakare. Kuchinja kwemuviri iwoyo mukati memvura kunonzi fusion. Iko kushandurwa kwechimiro muhuse gaseous kunonzi slimming. Sezvo kutonhora kunoderedzwa, kusimbisa kunoitika. Zvimwe zvinhu zviri pasi pesimba rekushisa zvinopinda muchikamu chemaamorphous. Izvi zvinonzi vitrification nemasayendisiti.

Mumamiriro ekushandura kwemukati, sarudzo yemukati yezvisikwa zvinoshanduka. Kurongeka kukuru kunowanikwa apo kutonhora kunoderedzwa. Pakudzvinyirira mukati memhepo uye kutonhora T> 0 K chero zvinhu zvinowanikwa mune zvakasikwa zvakaoma. Helium bedzi, nokuti crystallization iyo inomanikidzirwa ne 24 atm inodiwa, inopesana nemutemo uyu.

Mamiriro akaoma echinhu ichi anopa zvakasiyana siyana zvemuviri. Vanoratidzira maitiro chaiwo emitumbi pasi pesimba remamwe matima uye simba. Izvi zvikamu zvakakamurwa kuva mapoka. Pane maitiro matatu ekutsvaga anowirirana nemhando 3 dzemagetsi (mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic). Saizvozvowo, pane mapoka matatu ezvisikwa zvezvinhu zvakasimba:

• Mechanical properties inobatanidza kudzvinyirira uye kushandiswa kwemitumbi. Maererano nemirairo iyi, zvigaro zvakapatsanurwa kuva elastic, rheological, simba uye teknolojia. Mukuzorora, muviri wakadaro unochengetedza maitiro ayo, asi unogona kuchinja pasi pesimba rekunze. Muchiitiko ichi, kushandiswa kwaro kunogona kuve mupurasitiki (iyo fomu yekutanga haina kudzoka), yakasununguka (inodzokera kuchimiro chayo chepakutanga) kana kuparadza (kana imwe chikumbaridzo ichisvika, kuora / kupera kunoitika). Mhinduro kune simba rinoshandiswa inotsanangurwa nehutachiona moduli. Iyo yakasimba muviri inorambidza kwete kungodzvinyirira chete, kutambanudza, asiwo kuchinja, kushandura uye kupfugama. Simba remuviri wakasimba rinonzi imba yake yekudzivisa kuparadzwa.
• Kupisa, kunoratidzwa apo paine pachena kune masango. Chimwe chezvinhu zvinonyanya kukosha ndeye chidimbu chinoputika apo muviri unopinda mumvura yakasviba. Iyo inozivikanwa nokuda kwekristalline solids. Miviri yeAmorphous ine latent kupisa kwemafusion, sezvo kuchinja kwavo kuenda kune imwe nzvimbo yevhu uye kuwedzera kunotonhora kunoitika zvishoma nezvishoma. Paanosvika pane imwe kupisa, muviri unofungidzika unorasikirwa uye unowedzera mapurasitiki. Iyi nyika inoreva kuti inosvika pakuchinja kwegirazi. Kana kupisa, kushanduka kwekusimba kunoitika. Uye inowanzowedzera. Nhamba yepamusoro, iyo nyika inoratidzwa neimwe coefficient. Chitinhi chemuviri chinokanganisa mafungiro akadai semasikirwo, ductility, kuoma uye simba.
• Electromagnetic, inobatanidza nemigumisiro yakasimba panyaya yakasimba ye microparticles uye magetsi emagetsi epamusoro kusagadzikana. Mazaisai emagetsi aya anowanzotaurirwawo.

Zone sangano

Solids inosarudzwawo maererano ne-inonzi band maitiro. Saka, pakati pavo vanozivikanwa:

• Vafambisi, izvo zvinopesana mukuti maitirwo avo emitambo uye mavhiriji anosangana. Muchiitiko ichi, magetsi anokwanisa kufamba pakati pavo, achiwana simba shoma. Vadzidzisi vanosanganisira zvose zvese. Panogona kuparadzana kunoshandiswa kune muviri wakadaro, ikozvino magetsi anoumbwa (nemhaka yekusununguka kwemasikironi emasikirwo pakati pemakona ane zviduku uye zvakakosha zvikuru).
• Dielectrics dzine nzvimbo dzisingasviki. Nharaunda pakati pavo inodarika 4 eV. Kutakura magetsi kubva kuV valence kusvika kune conductive zone, ine simba guru rinodiwa. Nemhaka yezvinhu izvi zve dielectrics, zvinenge zvisiri ikozvino zviri kufamba.
• Semiconductors inozivikanwa nekushayikwa kwemasangano ekutengesa uye epa valence. Nharaunda pakati pavo iri pasi pe4V. Kuendesa mafironi kubva mubheji reva valence kuenda kunzvimbo inotungamirira, tinoda simba shoma kudarika dielectrics. Yakachena (isina kusimbiswa uye yeimba) semiconductors haipfuuri ikozvino.

Chirevo chema molecules muzvinyorwa zvinokonzera magetsi awo emagetsi.

Zvimwe zvinhu

Solids inoparadzaniswa maererano nemagnetic properties. Kune mapoka matatu:

• Madhayamusi ayo ane zvinhu zvishoma nezvishoma pamusana wekushisa kana kuti yehurumende.
• Paramagnetics, iyo inokonzerwa nekutarisa kwemasikironi emitambo uye nguva dzinokonzera maatomu. Maererano nemutemo weCurie, kukanganisa kwavo kunoderera zvichienderana nekupisa. Nokudaro, pa300 K, iri 10 ^-5 .
• Bodies vane anorayira masimba ane ruzivo rwakareba rweatomu. Pano nodes ye-lattice yavo, zvinyorwa zvine magnetic nguva dzinogara dziripo nguva nenguva. Izvozvo zvakasimba uye zvinhu zvinowanzoshandiswa mumagumo akasiyana-siyana emabasa evanhu.

Chakaomesesa fuma zvakasikwa

Ndezvipi? nezvishoma arambe achirema zvikuru kuona kwavo neukukutu. Mumakore achangopfuura, masayendisiti vakawana akawanda zvinhu kuti vanozviti "zvikuru vafuke muviri." Most hwakasimba - nayo fullerite (mechanical mamorekuru ine fullerene), rinova nyore anenge 1.5 nguva pane nedhaimani. Sezvineiwo, zviri aripo chete chaizvo diki zvakawanda.

Pari, chakaomesesa fuma, iyo gare gare kungashandiswa pane indasitiri - lonsdalite (hexagonal nedhaimani). Ndiye 58% kupfuura nedhaimani. Lonsdalite - allotropic dikidiki kabhoni. Its sekristaro yekamuri zvakafanana zvikuru nedhaimani. Lonsdaleite Sero rine 4 maatomu, asi nedhaimani - 8. Pakati inowanzoshandiswa crystals nhasi ndiyo chakaomesesa nedhaimani.