Ndezvipi makabhohaidhiretsi basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri womunhu

Chemical ehupfumi kwamakamuri vanoumba zvipenyu kuvimba achinyanya uwandu kabhoni maatomu vanoumba kusvika 50% kubudikidza yakaoma uremu. Carbon maatomu ndivo huru Organic zvinhu: mapuroteni, nucleic acids, lipids uye makabhohaidhiretsi. Zvapedzisira boka rinosanganisira carbonyl remubatanidzwa uye mvura chaienzanirana yemaitiro (CH ₂ O) _N, apo N akaenzana kana kupfuura vatatu. Kunze kabhoni, hydrogen oxygenation, ari morekuru ingasanganisira phosphorus, senitrogen, nesarufa. Munyaya ino, tikaongorora basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri womunhu, uyewo unhu mamiriro avo, zvivako uye mabasa.

kupatsanura

Ichi boka yeimwe mu nemakemikari omuviri akakamurwa nemakirasi matatu: nyore shuga (monosaccharides), polymeric yeimwe ane glycosidic linkage - oligosaccharides uye biopolymers soro samolecular uremu - polysaccharides. Vataurwa pamusoro makirasi fuma yakawanikwa siyana muchitokisi mhando. Somuenzaniso, kune shuga uye starch mu chirimwa zvivako, glycogen - mu hepatocytes dzevanhu, uye masero pamasvingo notumwe, ari chitin - kuruvazhe marangwanda arthropods. Zvose pamusoro zvinhu - ndivo makabhohaidhiretsi. Basa makabhohaidhiretsi mu muviri nokudenga. Ivo - huru nokutengesa simba pamusoro pezvakaitwa zvinokosha kuti chirimwa masero, mabhakitiriya, mhuka uye vanhu.

monosaccharides

Ita vakawanda payakavakirwa C _N H _{2 N} O _N uye vanokamurwa muzvikwata zvichienderana nokuwanda kabhoni maatomu ari Morekuru: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, uye zvichingodaro. Sezvo chikamu muchitokisi organelles uye cytoplasm nyore shuga vane spatial configurations maviri: Linear uye tenderera. Muchiitiko chokutanga, carbon maatomu chokuita nomumwe Via covalent zvisungo Sigma uye chimiro akavhara muzvishwe, panyaya wechipiri kabhoni marangwanda haina kuvharwa uye angadaro branching. Kuti uone zvinhu basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri, funga vakawanda vavo - the pentose uye hexose.

Isomers: shuga uye fructose

Vane chete samolecular payakavakirwa C ₆ H ₁₂ O _6, asi nekuve STRUCTURAL mamorekuru. Hatina kare kunzi chikuru basa makabhohaidhiretsi mu zvipenyu - simba. The pamusoro zvinhu dzaputswa pedyo muchitokisi. Zvinoguma nokusunungurwa simba (17.6 KJ rimwe giremu kuti shuga). Uyezve, 36 mamorekuru pamusoro ATP riri synthesized. shuga manyowa kunoitika pamusoro membranes (cristae) mitochondria uye inomiririra ngetani enzymatic siyana - the Krebs kutenderera. Ndiye chinokosha dissimilation inoyerera zvose masero heterotrophic eukaryotic zvipenyu.

Shuga iri kuumbwa myocytes vari mhuka nokuda kukamurwa mune tsandanyama glycogen. Mune ramangwana, rinoshandiswa sechinhu nyore decomposable fuma sezvo kupa masero vane simba - ndicho chikuru rinoitwa makabhohaidhiretsi pamuviri. Plants muri phototrophs yakazvimiririra kuumba shuga panguva photosynthesis. Maitiro aya anonzi Calvin kutenderera. The kutanga zvinhu ndiyo carbon dioxide inobvisa uye acceptor - ribolozodifosfat. Kwetunhu shuga rikaitika chloroplast chizvaro. Fructose, muchiva samolecular payakavakirwa sezvo shuga, rine iri Morekuru kushanda boka ketones. Iye zvinotapirawo kupfuura shuga, uye ari huchi muto michero uye zvibereko. Saka, zviri zvipenyu basa makabhohaidhiretsi pamuviri nhema kunyanya kushandiswa kwayo sezvo akurumidze rine simba.

Basa yedzinza ari pentose

Ngatikurukurei imwe boka monosaccharides - ribose uye deoxyribose. kusiyana kwavo iri yokuti vari chikamu Polymers - nucleic acids. Nokuti zvinenge zvose, kusanganisira vasiri cellular upenyu siyana, DNA uye RNA ndivo vanonyanya vatakuri enhaka mashoko. Ribose Rinowanikwawo imwe RNA Morekuru uye deoxyribose nucleotides zviri DNA. Somugumisiro, vanhu chaivo basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri womunhu ndechokuti vari munyaya paumbwe vezvikwata yedzinza - kwemajini uye okutodza.

Wakanaka pentose ine aldehyde boka uye kwakapararira munyika chirimwa umambo vari xylose (zviri madzinde mbeu), Alpha-arabinose (anochengeterwa matadza miti ibwe chibereko). Saka, zviri kuparadzira uye zvipenyu basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri dzakakwirira zvirimwa yakakura zvakakwana.

Chii oligosaccharides

Kana residues of mamorekuru ose monosaccharides, akadai shuga kana fructose, dzaibatanidzwa covalent zvisungo, asi aumba oligosaccharides - polymeric makabhohaidhiretsi. Basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri zvose zvinomera nemhuka zvakasiyana. Izvi ndezvechokwadi kunyanya disaccharides. Rakajairika pakati pavo vari sucrose, lactose, maltose uye trehalose. Saka, sucrose, zvimwe aizivikanwa shamhu kana bhiti shuga, huri zvinomera sezvo kugadzirisa uye zvakachengetwa kupinda midzi yavo kana madzinde. Hydrolysis of aumba morekuru shuga uye fructose. Mukaka shuga, lactose ndiye mhuka mavambo. Kune vamwe vanhu, pane kusashivirira kuti fuma iyi nechokuita hyposecretion enzayemu lactase, iyo inotanga pasi mukaka shuga galactose uye shuga. Basa upenyu muviri siyana makabhohaidhiretsi. Somuenzaniso, ari disaccharide trehalose, rinoumbwa vaviri shuga residues, chikamu hemolymph pakati crustaceans, madandaude, tumbuyu. Rinotaurawo rikaitika masero notumwe uye zvimwe algae.

Chimwe disaccharide - Maltose, kana mumera shuga, iri mubhuku caryopses zvebhari kana rye ari kumera kwavo, ndizvo morekuru zvinosanganisira maviri shuga residues. Zvinonzi inoumbwa ne kuora kuti miriwo kana mhuka starch. Munguva duku ura nevanhu uye mhuka maltose dzainamatira nokuda enzayemu - maltase. In kwayo Kusavapo mu pancreatic muto rinowanika zvokurwara kunokonzerwa kusashivirirana kuti chikafu starch glycogen kana muriwo zvigadzirwa. Muchiitiko chino, kudya chaiyo uye iri kuwedzera zvokudya yacho enzayemu pachayo.

Complex makabhohaidhiretsi zvakasikwa

Ivo zvakapararira zvikuru, kunyanya miriwo yose, muri biopolymers uye tine mupristi samolecular uremu. Somuenzaniso, zviri starch zviri 800 000, uye ari pulp - 1 600 000. The polysaccharides vakasiyana Kuronga monomers, polymerization dhigirii, uye cheni yakareba. Kusiyana nyore shuga uye oligosaccharides zviri nyore soluble nemvura uye kuva hwema kuravira, polysaccharides hydrophobic uye shata. Funga basa makabhohaidhiretsi mumuviri womunhu muenzaniso glycogen - mhuka starch. Zvinonzi synthesized kubva shuga uye chengeterwa hepatocytes uye skeletal tsandanyama masero, apo mairi zviri dzakakwirira kaviri kupfuura chiropa. By paumbwe glycogen vari kugonawo mafuta subcutaneous, neurocytes uye macrophages. Chimwe polysaccharide - miriwo starch chibereko photosynthesis uye anogadzirwa plastids yakasvibirira.

Kubva pakutanga chaipo yebudiriro kwevanhu, chikuru bhizimisi pamusoro starch vaiva zvinokosha zvirimwa: mupunga, mbatatisi, zviyo. Vachiri hwaro zvokudya ruzhinji vanhu Panyika. Ndokusaka zviri makabhohaidhiretsi zvinokosha zvakadaro. Basa makabhohaidhiretsi mu muviri, sezvataona, fomu kwavo simba-nzara uye nokukurumidza digestible makemikari nyaya.

Pane boka polysaccharides dziri monomers hyaluronic asidhi residues. Ndivo vakadanwa pectins uye ndiwo zvokuvakisa kuti chirimwa masero. Zvikurukuru akapfuma mavari svuura maapuro, bhiti pulp. Cellular zvinhu pectins inodzora intracellular kumanikidzwa - turgor. Muna confectionery indasitiri, vari kushandiswa sezvo gelling uye thickening nevasori kweShanduro yepamusoro mhando marshmallow uye mondo. The zvokudya anoshandiswa pakugadzira vanoshingaira zvinhu zvakanaka deducing zvinokachidza kubva muura.

Chii glycolipids

Ndicho inonakidza chikwata kunzwisisa yeimwe ose makabhohaidhiretsi uye mafuta ari huta tishu. Inoitwa uropi uye musana kuti mhuka. Glycolipids vari rinowanikwawo murwiyo foni membranes. Somuenzaniso, mabhakitiriya zvinobatanidzwa muchitokisi-muchitokisi kutaura navo. Vamwe yeimwe izvi ndizvo maantigen (zvinhu kuti wanikidza Landsteiner AB0 boka ropa hurongwa). In masero mhuka, zvinomera uye vanhu, kunze glycolipids, varipo uye vakasiyana mafuta mamorekuru. Ivo vanoita anonyanya simba chaitika. Pamusoro cleavage mumwe giremu mafuta 38,9 KJ nesimba asunungurwa. mamiriro basa (chikamu muchitokisi Kamudzira) kuti lipids vari yoku. Saka, mabasa aya anoitwa makabhohaidhiretsi uye mafuta. basa ravo muviri kumusoro chaizvo.

Basa makabhohaidhiretsi uye lipids mumuviri

In yevanhu uye nemhuka masero zvinogona kuonekwa interconversions pamusoro polysaccharides uye mafuta kuitika somugumisiro muviri. Masayendisiti uye nezvezvokudya vakawana kuti kunyanya kudya kuti starchy zvokudya kunotungamirira kuunganidza mafuta. Kana munhu ane kusagadzikana rwatata tichitarisa woga kana amylase anotungamirira munhu ndakagara mararamiro, uremu angava makuru chaizvo. Zvinokosha kuyeuka kuti carbohydrate-vapfumi chikafu rwakoromoka kunyanya duodenum kupinda shuga. Iye woga kuti capillaries ari villi pamusoro ura duku uye iiswe chiropa uye tsandanyama sezvo glycogen. The kumwezve kupanana zvinhu mumuviri, ndipo riri rwakakamukana shuga. zviri ipapo kushandiswa sezvo mumasero chikuru, asi nesimba zvinhu. mashoko aya anopa mhinduro yomubvunzo wokuti basa reDare makabhohaidhiretsi, muviri womunhu.

Meaning of glycoproteins

Compounds kuti boka iri zvinhu anomiririrwa zvakaoma carbohydrate + mapuroteni. Ndivo vakadanwa glycoconjugates. Izvi antibody, mahormone, Kamudzira mamiriro. Latest zvidzidzo nokukanganisika yakasimbiswa kuti kana glycoproteins anotanga kuchinja chizvarwa ayo (dzinongoitika) yakarongeka, inotungamirira kuvapo kwezvirwere izvi zvakaoma zvakadai asima, dzinonzi rheumatoid arthritis, kenza. Basa glycoconjugates iri muviri muchitokisi zvakakwirira. Somuenzaniso, mainterferon tunodzivisa chokuwanziridza pamusoro nemavhairasi, immunoglobulins zvinodzivirira muviri utachiona. mapuroteni ropa zvakare kuva boka iri zvinhu. Ivo kudzivirira uye buffering zvivako. Zvose pamusoro mashandiro kunosimbiswa pakuti vasiri basa makabhohaidhiretsi mu muviri siyana uye kunokosha.

Kupi uye sei makabhohaidhiretsi vari akaumba

bhizimisi Major nyore uye kunzwisisa shuga - a minyoro: algae, yepamusoro spore, gymnosperms uye maruva. Ivo vose ane ruvara chlorophyll masero. Ndiye chikamu thylakoid - Zvivako chloroplasts. musayendisiti Russian KA Timiryazev akadzidza nedanho photosynthesis, zvichiguma nokuumbwa makabhohaidhiretsi. Basa makabhohaidhiretsi ari muviri chirimwa ndiko kuunganidza starch michero, mbeu Mabumba, kureva, mune vegetative zvomukati. photosynthesis mashandiro ari nani kwakatooma uye inoumbwa akatevedzana enzymatic siyana kuti atore nzvimbo zvose chiedza uye murima. Shuga iri synthesized kubva carbon dioxide inobvisa pasi zvinoitwa makemikari. Heterotrophic zvinenge vanoshandisa zvinomera seinokonzera zvokudya uye simba. Saka zvirimwa ndivo kubatana rokutanga zvose ngetani zvokudya uye vanonzi vaburitsi.

The masero heterotrophic zvipenyu makabhohaidhiretsi synthesized mu migero kumeso (agranular) endoplasmic reticulum. Zvadaro vari kushandiswa sezvo simba uye kuvaka zvinhu. In chirimwa masero makabhohaidhiretsi Uyezve kuumbwa muna Golgi, uye ipapo uende wezvamatongerwe cellulosic muchitokisi rusvingo. In nedanho kugaya remubatanidzwa mhuka vertebrates yakapfuma makabhohaidhiretsi, zvishoma akoromoka pamuromo uye mudumbu. Main dissimilation chete siyana dzinoitika duodenum. Sezvazvakanyorwa inomira pancreatic muto ine amylase enzayemu kuti unodokwairira sitachi kuti shuga. Sezvo yave kwokutanga akati, shuga wefodya unopinda muropa riri ura duku uye chakatasanurwa pamusoro masero ose. Pano rinoshandiswa sechinhu simba rine uye STRUCTURAL zvinhu. Izvi anotsanangura basa kuti makabhohaidhiretsi rei mumuviri.

Nadmembrannye zvivako masero heterotrophic

Ndivo manyorerwo mhuka uye hunokuvadza. Makemikari anoumba uye samolecular sangano pezvivako idzi anomiririrwa yeimwe dzakadai lipids, mapurotini uye makabhohaidhiretsi. Basa makabhohaidhiretsi pamuviri - nayo rinobatanidzwa simba muviri uye kuvaka membranes. In yevanhu uye mhuka masero ane chinoumba zvikuru STRUCTURAL inonzi glycocalyx. Izvi dzakaonda pamusoro rukoko anoumbwa glycolipids uye glycoproteins chokuita cytoplasmic membrane. Rinotibatsira kwainge pamwe kunze masero. Kouya omumwe mikana yakawanda yokukurudzira uye extracellular kugaya. Nokuda kwavo carbohydrate goko masero kunamatirana achiumba jira. Fani iyi inonzi adhesion. Tinewo kuwedzera kuti "miswe" kuti carbohydrate mamorekuru dzawanikwa muchitokisi nomumativi tinotungamirirwa mune interstitial mvura.

Rimwe boka heterotrophic zvipenyu - notumwe midziyo anewo pose, yainzi sero rusvingo. Zvinosanganisira kunzwisisa shuga - chitin, glycogen. Dzimwe mhando notumwe dzinewo soluble makabhohaidhiretsi akadai trehalose, inonzi howa shuga.

In unicellular mhuka dzakadai ciliates, pamusoro rukoko - pellicle rinewo oligosaccharide zvivako pamwe mapurotini uye lipids. Vamwe nyore pellicle dzakaonda zvakakwana uye hakutadzisi nokuchinja muviri chimiro. Asi vamwe richikora uye anova simba sezvo dzokurwa, akatakura unodzivirira basa.

Plant Sero rusvingo

Rinewo yakawanda makabhohaidhiretsi, kunyanya cellulose vakaunganidza mwanda kuti fibers. zvivako izvi zvinoumba pamatanda, achinyatsotaurira imwe colloidal chizvaro. Inoitwa zvikurukuru oligosaccharides uye polysaccharides. Sero Masvingo miriwo masero anogona lignificated. Panyaya iyi, magwanza anenge pakati pamakamuri azara nevamwe makabhohaidhiretsi cellulose - lignin. It runogonesa ari kutsigira basa muchitokisi membrane. Kazhinji, kunyanya mu perennial ligneous miti, chokunze rukoko zvinosanganisira cellulose zvemapuranga mafuta-kufanana fuma - suberin. Rinovatadzisa ari ingress mvura kupinda chirimwa rinenge saka masero akashandurwa nokukurumidza kufa kure uye zvafukidzwa paiva koko.

Mukupfupikisa, tinoona kuti chirimwa muchitokisi rusvingo vari titsigire makabhohaidhiretsi uye mafuta. basa ravo mumuviri phototrophs kurerutswa kubva glycolipid zvivako vanopa kutsigira uye anodzivirira ushande. Tichadzidza akasiyana-siyana makabhohaidhiretsi, zvakananga kuna Monera umambo zvipenyu. Izvi zvinosanganisira prokaryotes, zvakadai utachiona. Dzavo Sero rusvingo chine carbohydrate - murein. Zvichienderana panyika nemamiriro midziyo rakakamurwa utachiona giremu-akanaka uye giremu negative.

Nemamiriro rechipiri boka zvikuru kunzwisisa. Mabhakitiriya aya vane akaturikidzana zviviri: epurasitiki uye aoma. Wokutanga rine mucopolysaccharides, semuenzaniso murein. mamorekuru Its vane chimiro guru rezvebonde zvivako, pova Kamudzira akapoteredza kwemabhakitiriya muchitokisi. Zvakaturikidzaniswa yechipiri ine peptidoglycan - mukomboni polysaccharides nemapurotini.

Sero rusvingo lipopolysaccharides kubvumira bacteria kuomerera zvakasimba substrates siyana, dzakadai zino enamel kana eukaryotic muchitokisi membrane. Uyezve, glycolipids vanotsigira adhesion kwemabhakitiriya masero kune mumwe. Saka inoumbwa, semuenzaniso, streptococci cheni sumbu staphylococci, uyezve, mamwe marudzi prokaryotes vane zvimwe mucosa - peplos. Rine ayo sezvamunoita ari polysaccharides uye nyore zvinoparadzwa zvakaoma nemwaranzi kana kuonana zvimwe makemikari dzakadai nemishonga.