Inotungamirwa, Secondary dzidzo uye zvikoro
Atomu kemesitiri - a ... Model pakati atomu. nemamiriro atomu
Pfungwa nezvokuva dzakapoteredza akatanga kushanyira vanhu asati ichatonga zvine mbiri yebudiriro ano. Chokutanga, vanhu vaifunga nezvokuvapo vamwe yepamusoro simba, iyo, ivo vakatenda, akafanosarudza wose. Asi runako nokukurumidza, vazivi uye vapristi vakatanga kufunga nezvokuti chii, Chokwadi, ndiyo kukamukana kuvapo. Dzidziso dzakatangwa, asi nhoroondo maonero yava nesimba mabhomba.
Muvambi maatomu dzidziso
Apo wokutanga kemisitiri chidzidzo kunotanga? Sechivako ane atomu - ndiro dingindira. Unogona yeuka kuti shoko "atomu" rinoshandurwa kubva mutauro se "indivisible" Greek. Zvino, kare vakawanda vanofunga kuti wekutanga zvinganaka dzidziso, izvo vati zvimwe zvacho tuduku anoumba zvose iripo, Democritus. Akararama muzana remakore rechishanu BC.
Zvinosuruvarisa kuti izvi hunoshamisa anofunga chaizvoizvo hapana anozivikanwa. It haana isu asvika chero akanyorwa panobva nguva idzodzo. Uye nokuda mukuru nyanzvi nguva yake, pfungwa, tinofanira kudzidza chete kubva mabasa Aristotle, Plato nevamwe vanofunga Greek.
Saka dingindira redu - "The nemamiriro atomu." In wekemisitiri, kwete zvose anazvo zvakakwirira ratings, asi vazhinji yeuka kuti vose ndezvipi ose masayendisiti ekare dzakavakwa vachingoshandisa inferences. Democritus akanga asiri kunze.
Sezvo ini akakurukurirana Democritus?
Kufunga yake raiva nyore chaizvo, asi panguva imwe chete penya. Fungidzira kuti une sharpest banga munyika. Iwe tora apuro, somuenzaniso, uye ipapo kutanga zvidimure: sezvikamu vaviri dzokugara, vagovane navo zvakare ... In shoko, pakupedzisira uchawana shomanana toaisa pamusoro ukobvu kuti kuramba vagovere achava kare chisingazogoneki. Pano zvichava indivisible atomu. In wekemisitiri, kutaura uku runoonekwa wechokwadi zvinenge kusvika kumagumo kwezana remakore rechi19.
Kubva Democritus pfungwa ano
Zvinofanira kucherechedzwa kuti kubva muchiGiriki Dzidziso yacho Microcosm rekare vakaramba shoko rimwe chete "atomu". Zvino wechikoro ose anoziva kuti nyika yakatipoteredza rinoumbwa zvikuru dzinokosha uye fines. Uyezve, kubva kumaonero nesayenzi yemazuva ano, dzidziso Democritus chinhu kupfuura evasingatombonamati tsvagai computation, haritsigiri zvachose hapana uchapupu. Zvisinei, mumazuva iwayo kwakanga kusina Erekitironi nemaikorosikopu, saka kuratidza nayo nedzimwe nzira panguva anofunga vaisapemberera zvaitika.
The nokufungirana chokutanga kuti Democritus zvechokwadi ipapo chaipo mishonga. Vakakurumidza akaziva kuti vazhinji zvinhu kuputsa kupinda nyore zvinoumba panguva kuita. Uyezve, zvakaunza kwazvo namakemikari regularities pamusoro azvaiitwa. Saka, vakaona kuti zvinoda sere vakawanda chikamu okisijeni uye imwe mvura - rehydrogen (mutemo Avogadro raMwari).
KuMiddle Ages, chero dzidziso zvinhu, kusanganisira dzidziso Democritus, kuparadzirwa uye kukura aisagona kuwana zvachose. Uye chete XVIII remakore, masayendisiti kamwe zvakare vadzokera mabhomba pfungwa. Pakazosvika kemisiti Lavoisier, dzedu huru M. V. Lomonosov uye unyanzvi Chirungu yefizikisi D. Dalton (izvo tichakurukura oga), kuti zvinogutsa akaratidza vavo yomugariro maatomu. Zvinofanira kusimbiswa kuti kunyange chinoziva rechi18 mabhomba dzidziso kwenguva refu nguva pfungwa dzakawanda inokosha iyoyo zvinoguma.
Chero zvakanga, asi kunyange masayendisiti izvi zvikuru hamusati kuisa mberi dzidziso sechivako atomu, sezvo aionekwa mumwe uye indivisible PARTICIPLE, hwaro zvose.
Zvinosuruvarisa kwemakemikari kugona kuratidza zvakajeka chokwadi kutendeuka vamwe maatomu kupinda zvimwe zvinhu. Asi chikuru nesayenzi kudzidza maumbirwo maatomu chaiwo kemisitiri. Maatomu uye mamorekuru kunge akadzidza kwenguva refu, kwakajeka masayendisiti Russian, pasina pazviri pasingabviri kufungidzira nesayenzi yemazuva ano.
Dzidziso D. I. Mendeleeva
Asi dzidziso Mendeleyev chinokosha kwete chete kune izvi. It achiri kujeka tsoziva chimiro maatomu dzakasiyana zvine maatomu akafanana. Asi Russian musayendisiti mukuru akakwanisa pachena kuti vose vari, pasina chaakasiya chokuita nomumwe.
Opening Dalton
Asi kuti kukwanisa kududzira akawanda zvakasiyana Data kugona chete Dzhon Dalton, ane zita iri nokusingaperi rabva ari kuwanikwa nomurayiro pachayo. Kazhinji, masayendisiti akadzidza chete maitiro magasi, asi kuwanda zvido zvakanga vakwanise zvikuru. Muna 1808 akatanga kubudisa basa rake inokosha idzva.
It Daltons vakafunga kuti mumwe makemikari maatomu akafanana unoenderana imwe atomu. Asi musayendisiti, sezvo Democritus emakore pamberi pake, achiri kutenda kuti vanotoda vasingasiyani. In ayo drafts dzakawanda diagrammatic vanodhirowa, umo maatomu anomirirwa muchimiro nyore pellets. Pfungwa iyi, iyo yakatanga makore anopfuura 2,500 apfuura, chakavapo zvinenge nanhasi! Zvisinei, panongova achangobva rakachengetedzwa vawana nemamiriro atomu zvechokwadi rakadzika. Chemistry (Grade 9 zvikurukuru) kunyange nhasi dzinongoita kutungamirirwa pfungwa kuti vakatanga mune muzana remakore rechi18.
Experimental nokusimbisa divisibility kwemaatomu
Zvisinei, anenge zvose vasayendisiti vaidavira kuti atomu kusvikira kumagumo kwezana remakore rechi19 - muganhu zvinopfuura izvo hapana. Vaifunga kuti hwaro rezvisikwa zvose zviri chaizvo izvozvo. Izvi akwanise nokuda siyana kuedza: chero munhu angati, asi chii Kuchinja chete Morekuru, ukuwo mwero pamwe maatomu ari pfuma haina kuitika zvachose kuti aisagona zvitsanangurwe nyore kemisitiri. Sechivako kabhoni maatomu Somuenzaniso, chinoramba kuzochinja zvachose kunyange akasiyana allotropic inoti.
Muchidimbu, kwenguva yakareba, pakanga zvachose pasina experimental mashoko kuti kanenge sananga Yakatsigira mamwe masayendisiti kuti pane zvimwe zvacho chinokosha. Chete muzana remakore rechi19 (kwete mudukusa anoonga zvakaitika Curies) zvakanzi akaratidzwa kuti pasi zvimwe zvinhu maatomu mumwe chaikosha inogona tinoshandurirwa mumwe. Zvavakawana izvi zvinoumba hwaro pfungwa ano pamusoro nyika yakatipoteredza.
Akawoma uye puddings
Muna 1897, George. Thomson, Chirungu yefizikisi, zvakanzi vakawana kuti chero atomu pane uwandu isakarurama mhosva nezvimedu, zvaakanga anonziwo "maerekitironi". Nechekare muna 1904, musayendisiti akasika wokutanga womuenzaniso mabhomba, iyo nani kuzivikanwa pasi rokuti "puramu Pudding". The zita zvakarurama kwazvo unoratidza musimboti. Kubva musi Thomson kuti dzidziso atomu mu kemisitiri - chiri "mudziyo" pamwe noruvara akagoverwa imomo mutariri uye maerekitironi.
Ona kuti muenzaniso uyu wechiGeorgian kunyange muzana remakore rechi20. Gare gare zvikazooneka kuti zvakanga hazvisizvo. Kunyange zvakadaro, zvakanga wokutanga kuedza vanoziva munhu (uye zvichienderana nesainzi) kuti recreate yakapoteredza Microcosm, kupa muenzaniso atomu, nyore uye zvakajeka.
kuedza Curie
Zvinofungidzirwa kuti vaviri, Pierre uye Mariya Kyuri nheyo maatomu wefizikisi. Chokwadi, mupiro varume ava shasha, Chokwadi vachibayira utano hwake uye upenyu, haagoni kurerutswa, asi avo zvakaitika vaiva kure zvikuru inokosha. Anenge panguva imwe chete Rutherford vakaratidza kuti atomu - zvakawanda kunzwisisa uye heterogeneous marongerwo. Chiitiko pamusoro radioactivity, zvavakanga Akaongorora, ndicho nezvazvo uye nehurukuro.
"Planetary" kusvika
Pakupedzisira Rutherford akasarudza kuti weheavy metal atomu bombardment α-inoramba (ionized chose nehelium). A musayendisiti kamwe akataura kuti chiedza maerekitironi havagoni kuchinja trajectory kuti PARTICIPLE inofamba. Saka, kupararira kungaita chete vamwe kwakanyanya zvinoriumba kuti anogona huri mwoyo weatomu. Pakarepo, tinoona kuti chepakutanga Rutherford havana kumbotaura kuti kushandura "Pudding" dzidziso. muenzaniso uyu atomu kwainzi vakabuditsa.
Naizvozvo kwaita kuti zvinenge zvose zvacho pasina matambudziko vakayambuka nhete rukoko yesirivha, hazvisi kushamiswa. Ndizvo pasina nguva zvakava pachena kuti vamwe nehelium maatomu vakanga vakatsauka ° 30 chete. Zvakanga zvisiri chii kutaura panguva iyoyo kemisitiri. Zvinoumba maererano Thomson atomu vakafungidzira dzakafanana kuparadzira maerekitironi. Asi ichi ndicho pachena zvinopesana kuchengetwa zvakavapo.
Zviri apo neapo, asi vamwe nezvimedu akabhururuka panguva necheparutivi, kunyange 180 °. Rutherford aiva gobvu kukangaidzika. Pashure pezvose, rinooneka nayo vakapikisa "Pudding", mhosva iyo aifanira kuva (maererano Thomson dzidziso) zvakaenzana anoparadzirwa. Somugumisiro, gogonera kuremedzwa nzvimbo dzaigona dzinga kuti ionized nehelium, vakanga vasipo.
Chii mhedziso kuuya Rutherford?
ezvinhu aya chakaita masayendisiti kufunga kuti atomu iri kunyanya maturo uye muzinda chete pfungwa imwe dzidzo uine vebasa - the tsanga. Uye kwakange muenzaniso yemapuraneti pamusoro atomu, iyo postulates zvinotevera:
- Sezvatakamboreva kare akati, riri nechepakati chikamu chinoumba, uye inzwi rayo (hama kuti kukura atomu pacharo) riri kunyora nezvavo.
- Vanenge vose maatomu guru, uyewo zvose zvakanaka mutariri anowanikwa musimboti.
- Maerekitironi dzitendererane nayo. Zvakakosha kuti nhamba yavo akaenzana zvakanaka mutariri.
kutsanangura dzidziso
Chokwadi, hapana chinhu chakadaro kuitika chaizvoizvo. Chero atomu kwete chete chaizvo nemishonga, asi pane ingava parinogumira nguva, sezvamakaropafadzwa hapana nemwaranzi haangaregi kure. musiyano Izvi zvinotsanangurwa nokuti kusvika microworld tiri kuedza kushandisa mitemo zvinokosha chete pamusoro dzenhoroondo makanika. Vakatendeukira kuna mabhomba-pamwero mananara havasi zvinoshanda zvachose. Uye nokuti nemamiriro atomu (Chemistry, Grade 11) bhuku vanyori kuedza kutsanangura yakawanda sezvingabvira namashoko nyore.
Dzidziso Bohr raMwari
Danish yefizikisi Niels Bohr rave vakaratidza kuti Microcosm havagoni kuva pasi mitemo chete, zvatinopiwa izvo zvinokosha kuti macroscopic zvinhu. Yaiva pfungwa yake kuti Microcosm kuti "tungamirirwa" chete mitemo quantum. Chokwadi, zvino hapana quantum dzidziso pacharo, asi Bor chaizvoizvo akatanga tateguru wake, zvadzinofunga muchimiro postulates matatu kuti "kuponeswa" atomu, zvingadai kunotozongoita kuurayiwa, kana iye "akararama" maererano Rutherford pfungwa. Zvinonzi dzidziso iyi Dane aiva hwaro zvose quantum Vanamakanika.
Bohr kuti postulates
- Chokutanga izvi anoverenga chero mabhomba hurongwa kunogona chete zvakananga mabhomba inoti, uye nokuda mumwe nomumwe wavo mumwe chakanangana kukosha simba (E). Kana mira mamiriro atomu (kunyarara), zvino emit hahungangovi.
- The uchapupu wechipiri anoti akabuda chiedza simba rinowanikwa chete kana achichinja kubva ezvinhu mamwe simba mune mwero. Saizvozvowo, simba akasunungura akaenzana musiyano tsika pakati maviri mira inoti.
Niels Bohr muenzaniso atomu
musayendisiti yataurwa 1913 maererano semiclassical dzidziso. Zvinokosha kuziva kuti nheyo dzaro akaisa yemapuraneti muenzaniso Rutherford, uyo nguva pfupi asati akarondedzera atomu nenhumbi. Isu kare kuti dzekare Vanamakanika Masvomhu Rutherford zvinopesana: pahwaro kwayo, yakanga vaifunga kuti vane nguva Erekitironi yakanga nechokwadi kuwira pamusoro pechiso atomu.
Kuti "famba" kupikisa ichi, musayendisiti akaita vakasuma rinokosha rubvumo. Chaizvoizvo Its iri pakuti tichiratidza simba (iyo aifanira kutungamirira kuwa kwavo), maerekitironi anogona chete zvinofamba chero kunyanya muchadenga. Kana uchifamba sezvo dzavo nedzimwe trajectories vanonzi makemikari maatomu arambe ari pusa ezvinhu. Maererano Bohr pfungwa, kutenderera kwakadaro avo quantitative pfungwa sangano rakanga akaenzana Planck airamba.
The quantum dzidziso mabhomba mamiriro
1. Kutanga, duality (corpuscular-wave hunhu) ari Erekitironi pachayo. Zvichitaurwa zviri nyore, kuti PARTICIPLE haazvibati uye sei mashoko acho chinhu (a corpuscle), uye somunhu chinozunguzirwa. Sezvo PARTICIPLE ine yakananga mutariri uye vakawanda. Nekugona maerekitironi kusvika diffraction zvakafanana ne dzenhoroondo nemafungu. Izvi chete chinozunguzirwa urefu (λ) uye PARTICIPLE velocity (v) anogona chokuita mumwe nokuda chaiyo of Broglie ukama: λ = H / mv. Sezvo unogona fembera, M - mukanyiwa of Erekitironi.
2. Coordinates uye velocities ari nezvimedu kuyera ne kuMhedziso nemazvo zirokwazvo hazviiti. The tsunga zvakarurama batanidza, chikuru nechokwadi iri velocity. Sezvo, zvisinei, ndiEzekieri. Fani iyi inonzi Heisenberg nechokwadi, izvo zvinogona vakanyorwa zvinotevera ukama: Δx ∙ mamita ∙ Δv> and / 2. Delta X (Δh) akaratidza kusava nzvimbo anoona mune nzvimbo. Saizvozvowo, Delta V (Δv) rinomiririra nokukurumidza kukanganisa.
3. Kusiyana zvose kare nevakawanda, maerekitironi musapfuura kuburikidza kutenderera zvachose kunorondedzerwa se nezvitima pamusoro njanji. Quantum dzidziso inoti kuti munhu Erekitironi anogona kuva chero pfungwa iri muchadenga, asi mukana uyu akasiyana rimwe chidimbu.
Kuti chikamu nzvimbo zvakananga kunhivi mabhomba musimboti umo mukana uyu maximal, anonzi orbital. Modern kemesitiri nemamiriro Erekitironi anoshongwa kwemaatomu yezvidzidzo semaonero iyi maonero. Chokwadi, zvikoro vanodzidziswa yakarurama kuparadzira maerekitironi kuburikidza siyana, asi, Ungangove, chokwadi, ivo vakasiyana zvakasiyana.
4. Musimboti chinosanganisira Atomu nucleons (protons uye neutrons). The Serial uwandu chinhu periodic table inoratidza nhamba protons paro, uye uwandu protons uye neutrons akaenzana mabhomba guru. Heano mazano kutsanangura nemamiriro atomu musimboti kemisitiri nhasi.
The havaoni kuti quantum Vanamakanika
Kusvikira muna zano iri akaenda kemisitiri? Chemical nemamiriro atomu, vazhinji makore iwayo kwainzi nyore: vazhinji chete muna 1947 pakupedzisira vakaziva chokwadi nokuvapo zvokutanga inoramba.
vamwe mhedziso
Kazhinji, kana ukaronga quantum dzidziso haana pasina mathematicians, sezvo vose azvaiitwa zvinogona dzaona chete nokushandiswa Masvomhu dzakaoma. Asi chikuru chinetso hakusi pfungwa. The pezvakaitwa zvinorondedzerwa ne dzidziso iyi, inowanika kwete chete kune takasvinura, pasinei ose ano musayenzi ano, asi fungidziro.
Hakuna munhu, kunyange vamwe havagoni kufungidzira pezvakaitwa mu Microcosm, sezvo havana kufanana vose mananara kuti tichengete ari macrocosm. Pafunge: achangobuda Zvakawanikwa kupa chikonzero kufunga kuti quarks, neutrinos uye zvimwe zvacho dzinokosha zviripo pfumbamwe-divi (!). Somunhu kurarama-dimensional matatu nzvimbo, anogona kunyange inenge kutsanangura maitiro avo?
Panguva iyoyo, tinogona chete kuvimba masvomhu uye simba makombiyuta ano, iyo, zvichida, richashandiswa Micro-nyika simulation. Sezvineiwo zvinobatsira uye kemisitiri: mabhomba marongerwo dzichaitwa rakadzokororwa, pashure ichangopfuura masayendisiti kushanda mumunda ichi, yakashuma kuwanikwa itsva mhando kwemakemikari chisungo.
The ano Pfungwa sechivako atomu
Kana ukanyatsoongorora kuverenga zvose pamusoro apa, iwe pamwe pachavo uchakwanisa kutaura nhasi chii mufananidzo sechivako nyaya maatomu. Asi isu ichatsanangura: zviri zvishoma dzakachinjwa dzidziso Rutherford, vaisanganisa nemirairo inokosha pamusoro Niels Bohr. Zvichitaurwa zviri nyore, nhasi riri kuonekwa kuti maerekitironi vanotama ari runobva, Blurred nzira kumativi musimboti, iro rinoumbwa neutrons uye protons. Kuti chikamu nzvimbo kumativi, umo Erekitironi iri kazhinji kuwanika anonzi orbital.
Kunyange zvisingaiti chaizvo kutaura sei richachinja kunzwisisa kwedu mabhomba mamiriro mune ramangwana. Zuva nezuva, masayendisiti ari kushanda ari kupinda munzvimbo zvakavanzika Microcosm ndizvo: LHC (Large Hadron Collider), Nobel Prize muna wefizikisi - ichi zvose mugumisiro ongororo Data.
Asi kunyange ikozvino hatigoni kufungidzira uye anofungidzirwa mufananidzo chii zvichiri kuviga maatomu. Zviri pachena chete kuti atomu pacharo pamusoro rapanzvimbo Microcosm - chihombe furati, umo takurukura kunze paburiro wokutanga, uye kunyange panguva iyoyo kwete zvachose. Rinenge gore negore pane mishumo nezvomukana hwomukova zvakawanda zvacho zvitsva zvokutanga. Kana muitiro pakudzidza maatomu achaiswa chose kupedza, haazorambi ita kufungidzira mumwe nhasi.
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